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After third grade, all students returned to regular size classes. Although students were supposed to stay in their original treatment conditions for four years, not all did. Three findings from this experiment stand out. First, students in small...
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The integration and interaction of multiple disciplinary perspectives—with their varying methods—often accounts for scientific progress Wilson, ; this is evident, for example, in the advances in understanding early reading skills...
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By investigating those aspects of a social measurement that give rise to measurement error, the measurement process itself will often be improved. Regardless of field of study, scientific measurements should be accompanied by estimates of uncertainty whenever possible see Principle 4 below. This chain of reasoning must be coherent, explicit one that another researcher could replicate , and persuasive to a skeptical reader so that, for example, counterhypotheses are addressed. All rigorous research—quantitative and qualitative—embodies the same underlying logic of inference King, Keohane, and Verba, This inferential reasoning is supported by clear statements about how the research conclusions were reached: What assumptions were made?
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How was evidence judged to be relevant? How were alternative explanations considered or discarded? How were the links between data and the conceptual or theoretical framework made? The nature of this chain of reasoning will vary depending on the design of the study, which in turn will vary depending on the question that is being investigated. Will the research develop, extend, modify, or test a hypothesis? Does it aim to determine: What works? How does it work? Under what circumstances does it work? If the goal is to produce a description of a complex system, such as a subcellular organelle or a hierarchical social organization, successful inference may rather depend on issues of fidelity and internal consistency of the observational techniques applied to diverse components and the credibility of the evidence gathered.
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The research design and the inferential reasoning it enables must demonstrate a thorough understanding of the subtleties of the questions to be asked and the procedures used to answer them. Putnam used multiple methods to subject to rigorous testing his hypotheses about what affects the success or failure of democratic institutions as they develop in diverse social environments to rigorous testing, and found the weight of the evidence favored Page 68 Share Cite Suggested Citation:"3 Guiding Principles for Scientific Inquiry. This principle has several features worthy of elaboration. Assumptions underlying the inferences made should be clearly stated and justified. Moreover, choice of design should both acknowledge potential biases and plan for implementation challenges. Estimates of error must also be made.
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Claims to knowledge vary substantially according to the strength of the research design, theory, and control of extraneous variables and by systematically ruling out possible alternative explanations. Although scientists always reason in the presence of uncertainty, it is critical to gauge the magnitude of this uncertainty. In the physical and life sciences, quantitative estimates of the error associated with conclusions are often computed and reported. In the social sciences and education, such quantitative measures are sometimes difficult to generate; in any case, a statement about the nature and estimated magnitude of error must be made in order to signal the level of certainty with which conclusions have been drawn. To make valid inferences, plausible counterexplanations must be dealt with in a rational, systematic, and compelling way. Well-known research designs e.
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By the end of this section, you will be able to: Explain the simple theory of color vision. Outline the coloring properties of light sources. Describe the retinex theory of color vision. The gift of vision is made richer by the existence of color. Objects and lights abound with thousands of hues that stimulate our eyes, brains, and emotions. Two basic questions are addressed in this brief treatment—what does color mean in scientific terms, and how do we, as humans, perceive it? Simple Theory of Color Vision We have already noted that color is associated with the wavelength of visible electromagnetic radiation. When our eyes receive pure-wavelength light, we tend to see only a few colors. Six of these most often listed are red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet. These are the rainbow of colors produced when white light is dispersed according to different wavelengths. There are thousands of other hues that we can perceive. These include brown, teal, gold, pink, and white.
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The two major types of light-sensing cells photoreceptors in the retina are rods and cones Take-Home Experiment: Rods and Cones Go into a darkened room from a brightly lit room, or from outside in the Sun. How long did it take to start seeing shapes more clearly? What about color? Return to the bright room. Did it take a few minutes before you could see things clearly? Demonstrate the sensitivity of foveal vision. What about the clarity of the letters on either side of G?
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Figure 1. The image shows the relative sensitivity of the three types of cones, which are named according to wavelengths of greatest sensitivity. Rods are about times more sensitive, and their curve peaks at about nm. Evidence for the three types of cones comes from direct measurements in animal and human eyes and testing of color blind people. Cones are most concentrated in the fovea, the central region of the retina.
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There are no rods here. The fovea is at the center of the macula, a 5 mm diameter region responsible for our central vision. The cones work best in bright light and are responsible for high resolution vision. There are about 6 million cones in the human retina. There are three types of cones, and each type is sensitive to different ranges of wavelengths, as illustrated in Figure 1. A simplified theory of color vision is that there are three primary colors corresponding to the three types of cones. The thousands of other hues that we can distinguish among are created by various combinations of stimulations of the three types of cones. Color television uses a three-color system in which the screen is covered with equal numbers of red, green, and blue phosphor dots. The broad range of hues a viewer sees is produced by various combinations of these three colors. For example, you will perceive yellow when red and green are illuminated with the correct ratio of intensities.
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White may be sensed when all three are illuminated. Then, it would seem that all hues can be produced by adding three primary colors in various proportions. But there is an indication that color vision is more sophisticated. There is no unique set of three primary colors. Another set that works is yellow, green, and blue. A further indication of the need for a more complex theory of color vision is that various different combinations can produce the same hue. Yellow can be sensed with yellow light, or with a combination of red and green, and also with white light from which violet has been removed. The three-primary-colors aspect of color vision is well established; more sophisticated theories expand on it rather than deny it. Consider why various objects display color—that is, why are feathers blue and red in a crimson rosella?
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Figure 2. Absorption characteristics determine the true color of an object. Here, three objects are illuminated by white light, and one by pure red light. White is the equal mixture of all visible wavelengths; black is the absence of light. Similarly, light sources have colors that are defined by the wavelengths they produce. A helium-neon laser emits pure red light. The Sun produces a broad yellowish spectrum, fluorescent lights emit bluish-white light, and incandescent lights emit reddish-white hues as seen in Figure 3.
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As you would expect, you sense these colors when viewing the light source directly or when illuminating a white object with them. All of this fits neatly into the simplified theory that a combination of wavelengths produces various hues. Take-Home Experiment: Exploring Color Addition This activity is best done with plastic sheets of different colors as they allow more light to pass through to our eyes. However, thin sheets of paper and fabric can also be used. Overlay different colors of the material and hold them up to a white light. Using the theory described above, explain the colors you observe. You could also try mixing different crayon colors. Figure 3. Emission spectra for various light sources are shown. The spike for a helium-neon laser curve D is due to its pure wavelength emission. The spikes in the fluorescent output are due to atomic spectra—a topic that will be explored later. Color Constancy and a Modified Theory of Color Vision The eye-brain color-sensing system can, by comparing various objects in its view, perceive the true color of an object under varying lighting conditions—an ability that is called color constancy.
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We can sense that a white tablecloth, for example, is white whether it is illuminated by sunlight, fluorescent light, or candlelight. The wavelengths entering the eye are quite different in each case, as the graphs in Figure 3 imply, but our color vision can detect the true color by comparing the tablecloth with its surroundings. Figure 4. The importance of edges is shown. Although the grey strips are uniformly shaded, as indicated by the graph immediately below them, they do not appear uniform at all.
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Instead, they are perceived darker on the dark side and lighter on the light side of the edge, as shown in the bottom graph. This is due to nerve impulse processing in the eye. Theories that take color constancy into account are based on a large body of anatomical evidence as well as perceptual studies. There are nerve connections among the light receptors on the retina, and there are far fewer nerve connections to the brain than there are rods and cones. This means that there is signal processing in the eye before information is sent to the brain. For example, the eye makes comparisons between adjacent light receptors and is very sensitive to edges as seen in Figure 4. Rather than responding simply to the light entering the eye, which is uniform in the various rectangles in this figure, the eye responds to the edges and senses false darkness variations. One theory that takes various factors into account was advanced by Edwin Land — , the creative founder of the Polaroid Corporation.
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Land proposed, based partly on his many elegant experiments, that the three types of cones are organized into systems called retinexes. Each retinex forms an image that is compared with the others, and the eye-brain system thus can compare a candle-illuminated white table cloth with its generally reddish surroundings and determine that it is actually white. This retinex theory of color vision is an example of modified theories of color vision that attempt to account for its subtleties. One striking experiment performed by Land demonstrates that some type of image comparison may produce color vision.
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Two pictures are taken of a scene on black-and-white film, one using a red filter, the other a blue filter. Resulting black-and-white slides are then projected and superimposed on a screen, producing a black-and-white image, as expected. Then a red filter is placed in front of the slide taken with a red filter, and the images are again superimposed on a screen.
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You would expect an image in various shades of pink, but instead, the image appears to humans in full color with all the hues of the original scene. This implies that color vision can be induced by comparison of the black-and-white and red images. Color vision is not completely understood or explained, and the retinex theory is not totally accepted.
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It is apparent that color vision is much subtler than what a first look might imply. Change the wavelength of a monochromatic beam or filter white light. View the light as a solid beam, or see the individual photons. Click to run the simulation. Section Summary The eye has four types of light receptors—rods and three types of color-sensitive cones. The rods are good for night vision, peripheral vision, and motion changes, while the cones are responsible for central vision and color. We perceive many hues, from light having mixtures of wavelengths.
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However, engaging students to interact with text in an inquiry fashion required careful mediation by the teachers. Likewise, teachers needed to be supported in developing instructional practices that supported the use of text as inquiry. Evidence of Student Learning Thus far we have briefly described science as practice as an instructional approach that presents scientific skills as integrated—the skills of data collection and analysis are encountered in places where they can be useful for learning about a phenomena.
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We have also contrasted this approach with prevailing patterns of current instructional practice that present content and process separately. The prevalent practice of separating process and content in instruction has often been premised on notions of what students can and cannot do. However, the evidence from instructional research suggests that students can in fact engage in science as practice in meaningful ways. In these interventions, students develop questions, discuss ways to operationalize their questions in observations, and then collect data, interpret the data, and debate conclusions.
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In this work, students consider and critique different interpretations of data, and consider such factors as how different measurement or experimental procedures they or other students have chosen could affect what the data reveal about the underlying question. Upon reflection, 80 and 97 percent of these students, respectively, posited a strategy to address the uncertainty in their research design. In this approach, students are involved in developing questions for investigation, deciding how to measure the variables of interest, and developing data displays to represent their results.
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A focus of the approach is involving students in grappling with the need to represent their data in ways that communicate what they believe the data show about the question of interest, rather than giving students ready-made procedures for graphically representing their data. Students create representations and debate their relative merits for helping analyze and communicate their findings. They then revise the representations and use them as a tool to analyze the scientific phenomenon. These representations become more abstract and model-like and less literal over time. In one study, fifth grade students developed graphical representations to analyze naturally occurring variation in growing plants Lehrer and Schauble, These students were able to develop representations that captured the properties of the distributions, and they were able to use these tools in designing and conducting investigations of such variables as light and fertilizer on plant growth.
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The focus on the meaning of the data representation and its use to communicate among the community of students seemed to help learners develop more sophisticated understandings of distribution as a mathematical idea, and the biological variation in their samples it represents. Middle Grades: Problem-Based and Conceptual Change Approaches In the middle grades, one common approach to engage students in the practices of science is problem-based or project-based science Blumenfeld et al.
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In these approaches, a research question about a problem can provide the context for extended investigations. Students learn the target science content and processes in the context of pursuing that question. For example, students learn about the particulate nature of matter and chemical reactions while investigating the quality of air in their community Singer et al. Characteristics of this approach include establishing a need for the target understanding, through a problem students find compelling Edelson, , often a real-world application. Students then investigate the problem context and attempt to apply their findings to address the original problem. Often the projects include a culminating activity in which students apply what they have learned to address the problem, Page Share Cite Suggested Citation:"9 Teaching Science as Practice. Culminating activities provide students the opportunity to reflect on their experiences and apply their scientific understanding, for example, discussing atmospheric phenomena to argue about possible causes of global warming, or analyzing forces and motion to redesign and test model vehicles and their propulsion systems Kolodner et al.
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These approaches stem from the research reviewed in Chapter 4 that characterizes the types of conceptual changes that learners undergo—acquiring new concepts; elaborating existing conceptual structures; restructuring a network of concepts; or adding new, deeper levels of understanding—and discuss strategies for effecting conceptual change. A common thread across these programs of instruction is a strong metacognitive component. Typically, activities are introduced to make students aware of their initial ideas and that there may be a conceptual problem that needs to be solved. A variety of techniques may be useful in this regard. Students may be asked to make a prediction about an event and give reasons for their prediction, a technique that activates their initial ideas and makes students aware of them. Class discussion of the range of student predictions emphasizes alternative ways of thinking about the event, further highlighting the conceptual level of analysis and creating a need to resolve the discrepancy.
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Conceptual change shares several of the features of problem-based learning described above. In conceptual change approaches, teachers make complex scientific problems meaningful to students from the outset of study and integrate multiple strands of proficiency. They then provide students with pieces of the problem that will allow them to make incremental progress in understanding a large, complex area of science over weeks or months. The problems—whether practical, applied, or conceptual—require the integration and coordination of multiple ideas and aspects of scientific practice. Research on these varied approaches to teaching science as practice reveals promising results.
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First, there is much evidence that, with appropriate support, students engage in the inquiry, use the tools of science, and succeed in complex scientific practices. For example, students engaged in problem-based learning succeed in working with complex primary data sets Page Share Cite Suggested Citation:"9 Teaching Science as Practice. They can use scientific visualization tools to analyze primary data sets of atmospheric data and explain patterns of climate change Edelson, ; Edelson, Gordin, and Pea, There is also some evidence that these project-based experiences can help students learn scientific practices. Kolodner et al. Students in project-based science classrooms performed better than comparison students on designing fair tests, justifying claims with evidence, and generating explanations. They also exhibited more negotiation and collaboration in their group work and a greater tendency to monitor and evaluate their work Kolodner et al. Conceptual change researchers have found that across the K grade span, involving children in cycles of model-based reasoning can be a highly effective means of building their deeper conceptual understandings of core scientific principles Brown and Clement, ; Lehrer et al.
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Problem-based approaches have demonstrated that students succeed in learning complex scientific content as represented in state and national standards, using assessments like the National Assessment of Educational Progress NAEP and standardized state tests. For example, Rivet and Krajcik found that students in a lower income urban district achieved significant gains in both science content e. There is also some evidence of the scalability of the approach. Marx and his colleagues examined the learning gains for 4 project-based units enacted in a school district across 3 years. Again, using curriculum-based test items designed to parallel those on state and NAEP assessments, they found significant learning gains more than 1 standard deviation in effect sizes on both content and process items for all four units. These gains persisted and even increased across years of enactment, as the intervention scaled to 98 classrooms and 35 teachers in 14 schools.
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In more recent work, this research group has compared performance on the high-stakes state assessments for students in project-based classrooms with those of the rest of the district, again focusing on students from the lower socioeconomic distribution in this urban district Geier et al. Project-based students from seventh and eighth grade achieved higher content and process scores Page Share Cite Suggested Citation:"9 Teaching Science as Practice. The effects of participation in the project-based classrooms were cumulative, with higher scores associated with more exposure to project-based instruction. Taken together, these results demonstrate that instruction that situates science as practice and that integrates conceptual learning can have real benefits for learners. Students at both elementary and middle school levels can succeed in engaging in science and in learning the science content that is encountered in these contexts.
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Saturday, April 24, 2021
Conceptual Physics Practice Page Chapter 26 Properties Of Light Answers
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